Media Industries and Audiences

Industries:

Print news: Historically news paper production was expensive.

• The production of the News was in the hands of newspaper journalists editors and printers
• Distribution of the news occurred when newspapers sent their newspapers to Newsagents via organisations who had some control over which publications were published, but had no control over content
•  Newsagents and retailers sold the newspapers to the public (circulation)
•  Producers control news content – this is an important issue as journalists and news editors are expected to adhere to professional standards.

On-line 

•  Distribution and circulation are combined via websites or social media
• News shelf life’s with the onset of Online are now short.  With news exclusives being used (in Print media) to sell  news.   They are now less valuable as the news cycle has shortened with Online News, where an exclusive can be picked up by the competition and recycled instantly.  
• News Organisations now rely on formats such as gossip, lifestyle journalism and sports journalism to minimize risk.
• Hesmondhalgh argues that cultural industries follow the mornal capitalist pattern of increasing concentration and integration- cultural production is owned and controlled by few conglomerates (concentration) who integrate across a range of media to reduce business risk.

The significance of issues of ownership and economic factors, including the range of each newspaper’s print and online content

Media theorist, Curran and Seaton, argue that media industries follow a capitalist pattern of increasing concentration of ownership in fewer and fewer hands.  

This leads to a narrowing of the range of opinions represented in the pursuit of profit at the expense of quality and creativity.  
Curran and Seaton’s theory relates to Profit and Power. 

• With the concentration of newspaper’s in fewer hands (oligarchies) enables Newspapers to increase profits through increased readership.
•  With the narrowing of choice to few Newspaper groups the owners of the Press groups the Press Barons (see below) or Elites have the opportunity to represent their political perspectives.
• This applies to the narrow range of political opinions expressed by British Newspapers with a bias to Pro capitalism
• The reason why Press barons own Newspapers is to achieve status and to wield political power.  

       As Seaton has pointed out, news in the online era is still controlled by powerful news organisations which have successfully defended their oligarchy, meaning that the mainstream media still control news, giving it a centrist political bias, about which both right-wing and left-wing political activist complain.

     The growing importance of social media in the distribution and circulation of news means that the social media companies are now crucial gatekeepers, but their lack of editorial control- they claim to be platforms rather than publishers- means that fake news and click-bait as well as authentic citizen journalism can proliferate.

      News circulated via social media is more likely to be image driven than traditional news. For example, The Guardian Instagram feed carries more soft news stories than either the Twitter feed or the online edition of the newspaper. The Mail Online twitter feed carries more international soft news and animal stories than The Daily Mail twitter feed, reflecting the different agendas of these two versions of the mail.

     Further reading Curran and Seaton

–     Curran and Seaton A political economy approach to the media – arguing that patterns of ownership and control are the most significant factors in how the media operate. Media industries follow the normal capitalist pattern of increasing concentration of ownership in fewer and fewer hands. This leads to a narrowing of the range of opinions represented and a pursuit of profit at the expense of quality or creativity. The internet does not represent a rupture with the past in that it does not offer a level playing field for diverse voices to be heard. It is constrained by nationalism and state censorship. News is still controlled by powerful news organisations, who have successfully defended their oligarchy.

Influence of Contexts:

The economic context of print and online journalism is that all such journalism is driven by the profit motive (apart from that produced by the BBC). The flight of advertising revenue from print journalism to online media (where most is spent on Facebook and Google) has starved journalism funds. This has led to a decline in expensive journalism such as international news and investigative reporting and a rise in the cheaper alternative, be it opinion, reporting celebrities and public relations events, lifestyle journalism and sports.

Concentration of ownership is limited by regulators such as the competition and Markets Authority which exists to prevent anti-competitive business monopolies. This is a political and economic context: the government has set up this agency as free markets require competition to work effectively. Media plurality is a live political issue in Britain today; for example, Labour Party policy is to try to increase the number of newspaper owners and help create more diverse voices.

The political context of the role of press freedom in the running of democracy gives opportunities but also places limits on the control exercised by owners of newspapers. Newspapers are permitted to be opinionated and politically biased, but newspaper editors invariably insists in public that the owner never interferes with the content of the newspaper.

Ruper Murdoch owns The Times , Sunday Tiems and Sun.

The Harmsworths own the Daily Mail.

News Industries: Funding:

Traditionally, newspapers depended on circulation and advertising for revenue.Tabloid newspapers had larger circulations but their working-class audience were less attractive advertisers, so the tabloids relies more on cover price. Broadsheet newspapers has the reverse- smaller circulations but attractive upmarket audiences- and relied more on advertising.

Newspapers now have a wider range of funding sources, which they need, given the continuing fall in print advertising revenues:

• Circulations- subscription or over-the-counter sales. The Daily Mail keeps the cover price low at 65p (£1 on Saturdays) to boost circulation in order to attract advertising: the Guardian has a much higher cover price at £2 (£2.90 on Saturdays) to raise revenue. The Saturday editions of both newspapers are much fuller than the weekday ones- the Guardian sells twice as many papers on this day.
• Paywalls- paying to access to online content, e.g for The Times website. The Sun has just discontinued this option as it reduced online readership.
• Membership- The Guardian is experimenting with this model for protecting free online content. It announced that it had reached 800,000 paying supporters (members,subscribers and supporters)worldwide in October 2017 and that the income from these now exceeded that from advertising.
• Print and Online Advertising- print is traditionally much more lucrative than online advertising but has drastically reduced in recent years. However, concerns over advertising being placed next to inappropriate online content by Goggle and Facebook, for example, may boost print advertising, though online newspapers have the ability to reach a global audience.
• Sponsored Content- this blurs the boundaries between advertising and the editorial that journalists prize but advertisers/brand managers wish to blur, e.g in the Guardian, 'Cricket has no boundaries' was paid for and controlled by the bank Nat West and 'Connecting Britain' was editorially independent content 'supported by' Alstrom, the train company.
• Events- The Guardian frequently runs courses (e.g on journalism or literature), meetings and conferences.
• Sales- The Guardian sells holidays and books, for example, linked to its review and travel sections; The Mail Finance advertises financial products with 'trusted partners' 

Influence of Contexts:

The rise of the internet as an economic context gives problems and opportunities for news industries to make money.

News sites that charge for access attract far fewer audience.

The social and Cultural context of audience expectations of free online content is and important factor. Online audience resist paying for content- the anarchistic self-governing ethos of the early internet encouraged this attitude.

The battle between independent journalism and brand marketing reflects competing contexts:

• the economic context of pressure from advertising and public relations professionals to inset brands into editorial content.
• the cultural context of the rules and ethics of journalism (as illustrated by media representations of heroic journalism) 

The cultural context of the prestige given to print journalism means that all newspapers (expect,at the time of writing, the Independent) have maintained print editions despite the adverse cost-benefit ratio of lower circulations (higher costs and lower income)

The Impact of technological change on the news:

Printing underwent a technological revolution in the 1980's with the replacement of expensive inflexible printing processes. This enabled newspaper to remain profitable with smaller print runs and more extensive use of photography and colour. It also accelerated the hybridisation of newspaper genres.

the impacts are:

• the opportunities for audience interactivity
• the growth of citizen journalism , with extensive use of mobile phone footage by mainstream media news outlets
• the rapid speeding up of the news cycle, from a 24-hour rhythm to constant updating of news
• the way certain types of news are prioritised in different online iterations
• more fake news and click-bait due to a lack of online regulation and editorial ownership.

The Mail Online is much more celebrity and gossip focused than the print newspaper. The Guardian online recognisably follows the structure of the print edition, but with greater prominence for the lifestyle, food, spot sections that are kept out of the main section of the print newspaper, plus a much higher proportion of photography and headlines to copy on the home page.

The Role of regulation in the news:

The Print Press is regulated by the Independent Press Standards Organisation (IPSO)
The Press in principle is self-regulated by this body however some organisations are not affiliated (Guardian)
Newspapers can in principle be sued through Britain’s libel laws where journalists have to prove that what they have written is true to win cases.
Online news is not regulated at all  (unless online newspapers choose to sign up to a regulator such as IPSO.
This has provided many online news providers a loop=hole that they can publish untruths with impunity (can’t be sued)
The issue of an unregulated Press is a key issue following the proven Russian interference in the 2016 Presidential elections.
Following an enquiry Facebook has acknowledged the need to employ content reviewers in order to prevent the release of fake news.

Audience:

How audiences are categorised by news industries:

The Publishers Audience Measurement Company Ltd (PAMCo) is an organisation run by the newspaper and periodical publishers and advertisers. Their figures for newspapers include such demographic categories as age, gender, class and region. News Industries will used these categories

News And online media

News stats:

•Print media is in decline , the extent of that change is reflected in the growth of on-line versions as indicated below

Difference between Tabloids and Broadsheets

Tabloid newspapers use gimmicks such as bingo games, free travel tickets etc. whereas broadsheet newspapers may include free

Broadsheets often include magazines or pull-outs but they are usually of an educational nature.

Owen Jones described the UK press as : 

•“largely run by a very small group of very right-wing media moguls who defend the status quo of which they are part. If you are on the Left and want to change society, the media will always come and get you”.

•Learners can research Gramsci’s hegemoney to gain further insights  on why the press is dominated by the right wing.

Curran and Seaton:

•Curran and Seaton.  - The idea that the media is controlled by a small number of companies

primarily driven by the logic of profit and power. ... - The idea that more socially diverse patterns of

ownership help to create the conditions for more varied and adventurous media production

•Capitalism (Right Wing Politics)

Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and

their operation for profit. Characteristics central to capitalism include private property, capital

accumulation, wage labor, Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the

means of production and their operation for profit. Characteristics central to capitalism include 

private property, capital accumulation, wage labour.   THE CONSERVATIVES ARE CAPITALISTS,

the Telegraph and Mail Newspapers believe in Capitalism.

 •Socialism (Left Wing Politics)

Socialism is a range of economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means

of production and workers' self-management, as well as the political theories and movements

associated with them. Social ownership can be public, collective or cooperative ownership, or citizen 

ownership of equity.   - - THE LABOUR PARTY ARE SOCIALIST and are considering bringing

back into state ownership the Rail service.

•Liberalism

Liberalism is a political and economic doctrine that emphasises individual autonomy, equality of 

opportunity, and the protection of individual rights (primarily to life, liberty, and property)

- Guardian newspaper supports many labour policies and has a liberal view on e.g individual 

autonomy i.e. they support multi-cultural-ism, they advocate freedom of expression e.g. gender and

sexuality. 

Media language theories:

Barthes:     enigma code, connotation and denotation associated with a sign, open and closed
narrative…
Todorov: theory of narrative disruption.
The Telegraph Headline and Splash (UK Internet Laws will be the toughest in the world)  the 
contents of the article discusses the harmful affects of the internet on children :  discuss using
Todorov’s theory how the story links to disequilibrium and an attempt to restore equilibrium.
Levi Strauss:   Binary oppositions
Neale: Genre theory: (page 16 revision notes)  covered previously and relates to a
shared code linked to a genre (e.g. genre conventions of Broadsheet and Tabloid
Newspapers)  However Neale insisted that the genre conventions are constantly
changing therefore the Guardian’s transformation to Tabloid format with more
human interest stories (page 9 revision notes)  is a clear example of hybridisation) - the daily mail is a
hybrid as it does serious content and funny content. 

Media Contexts 

Consumerism.   The ideology that we should judge ourselves and others

based on our material possessions.    The colourful nature of newspapers,

the presence of advertisements (DFS in the Telegraph) points towards a

consumerist society

Celebrity Culture. high-volume perpetuation of celebrities' personal lives

on a global scale.

Multi-culturalism. Assumes the equality of different cultures and pays

equal respect to diverse cultures.   The absence of content linked to multi

culturalism in both the Telegraph and the Mirror tends to suggest an

ethno-centrist ideology

Feminism.  Assumes the equality of women.    As a movement there is an

ongoing struggle to fight against patriarchal views.   The Telegraph headline

"Hey Presto women magician’s teaching men a trick or two” could be

interpreted as patronising as there is no reason why women should not be

as skilled in magic as men.

> individualism, putting James interest first, Telegraph doesn't show how hes always been putting his career first.

>patriarchy, James leaves his role as a father at home and leaves the patriarchy in the home to turner who has to play the role of the expressive mother. 

House Of Cards Part 2

•Long form TV is an American concept which effectively is a hybrid of a serialised drama with the high production standards of film.

The influence of Technological Change & Economic contexts:

How Long form dramas came into being.

Terrestial TV

Schedule content was fixed (reliant on analogue (radio wave technology as pre the internet)

Viewing experience was communal (families watched the same/similar content) as content was transmitted via Radio waves.

Dramas developed to encourage regular viewing

Program content with high audience numbers secured revenue via advertising.

Advertising revenue or PSB income (TV license) pays for drama for e.g. a typical Eastenders episode costs £141,000

•There is a clear shift towards SOD (subscription on demand viewing of television)

•This has been enabled through the Technological change i.e. the provision of streaming services

•(2017) Netflix receives an income of 2.5 $bn from UK subscribers.

•Their income is used to fund “high end” television content such as the HOC

Historical cultural and economic contexts.

•HOC belongs to a genre called Long form television drama. (LFTVD)

•LFTVD (Game of Thrones, HOC, etc.)  are characterised by high production values.

•Series one and 2 of the HOC costs an estimated  $100 Million for the first two series (26 episodes) to produce.

•By comparison Eastender’s costs  £29.9 million a year for 212 episodes. 

•Referring to the revision notes page 146, the cost of production of this High end Drama (HOC) is linked to

 –Sourcing highly skilled actors- Kevin Spacey

–Cinematic styling camera work

-Lighting and editing- the lighting is dull 

-Complex narratives (multi-stranded) (Barthes)- all the different story lines. For example, Frank not getting the secretary of state, Zoe trying to help herself get a better career.

-Composed music

Digital (streaming)

•Netflix  - In just a decade, Netflix has grown from a video service with seven million U.S. subscribers to one that reaches 93 million people worldwide.

•The company's now worth about $60 billion

•2016, Netflix spent $5 billion on original programming.

•The income from subscribers has allowed them to commission highly rated long form TV dramas such as House of Cards and Orange is the New Black.

•2017 sales rose to $2.48 billion. With a global presence in 190 countries.

Analysing the Ideological contexts

The prime contexts influencing medium language in television

drama may be ideologies such as:

•Individualism: e.g. focusing a drama on an individual protagonist

•Consumerism: e.g. judging characters on their possessions or desirability of their lifestyles- when Claire says "does that actually work on people", talking about Zoe's choice of clothes and judging her.

•Patriarchal: power and the challenge to this by feminism e.g. using or refusing to use women’s bodies as objects, or narratives that present a male, female or gender neutral perspective- When Zoe turns up at Franks house, the difference in power and the Patriarchy of class shown (through the body guard outside saying she can't knock on the door etc.) and how he refuses to look at Zoe's body, which she is flaunting in order to get through to him, in a sexual way.

•Racism and ethnocentrism and the challenge to those from multiculturalism and internationalism, e.g. narratives that present a monocultural, multicultural or minority perspective- Stereotypical black character at the end of the episode, The only other ethnic group in the episode.

Summary:

Russo: irresponsible, puts his personal life before his professional one- by doing drugs, sleeping around and drink driving.- Individualism

Frank: monologues and direct speaking to the audience breaks the fourth wall,he is patriarchal and holds power as a middle class white man. Cold/ ruthless- Stereotypical politicians (Donald Trump) 

Zoe: Uses sexuality to progress in her career, low cut shirts to gain attention- Van Zoonen 

Claire: Breaks patriarchy, degrades Zoe.

Masculinity stereotypes :

•Strength - physical and intellectual- Stength shown in Frank both physically and intellectually, through strangling the dog and coming up with the plan

•Power- Being in the Government 

•Sexual attractiveness (which may be based on the above)

•Physique

•Independence (of thought, action, finances)- Has his own money 

Levi - Strauss:

•Levi Strauss’s idea of the binary opposition – that the system of myths and fables

•(narrative) was ruled by s structure of opposig terms  such as male/female, good/evil.   This narrative structure can be applied to LFTVD’s such as the House of cards as follows